ABSTRACT

Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) is a phenomenon occurring at metal surfaces(typically gold and silver) when an incident light beam strikes the surface at a particular angle.Depending on the thickness of a molecular layer at the metal surface,the SPR phenomenon results in a graded reduction in intensity of the reflected light.Biomedical applications take advantage of the exquisite sensitivity of SPR to the refractive index of the medium next to the metal surface, which makes it possible to measure accurately the adsorption of molecules on the metal surface an their eventual interactions with specific ligands. The last ten years have seen a tremendous development of SPR use in biomedical applications.

The technique is applied not only to the measurement in real time of the kinetics of ligands receptor interactions and to the screening of lead compounds in the pharmaceutical industry, but also to the measurement DNA hybridization, enzyme- substrate interactions, in polyclonal antibody characterization, epitope mapping, protein conformation studies and label free immunoassays. Conventional SPR is applied in specialized biosensing instruments. These instruments use expensive sensor chips of limited reuse capacity and require complex chemistry for ligand or protein immobilization. Laboratory has successfully applied SPR with colloidal gold particles in buffered solutions. This application offers many advantages over conventional SPR. The support is cheap, easily synthesized, and can be coated with various proteins or protein ligand complexes by charge adsorption. With colloidal gold, the SPR phenomenon can be monitored in any UV spectrophotometer. For high throughput applications we have adapted the technology in an automated clinical chemistry analyzer. This simple technology finds application in label free quantitative immunoassay techniques for proteins and small analytes, in conformational studies with proteins as well as real time association dissociation measurements of receptor ligand interactions for high throughput screening and lead optimization.

INTRODUCTION

During the last two decades we have witnessed remarkable research and development activity aimed at the realization of optical sensors for the measurement of chemical and biological quantities. First optical chemical sensors were based on the measurement of changes in absorption spectrum and were developed for the measurement of CO2 and O2 concentration. Since then a large variety of optical methods have been used in chemical sensors and biosensors including elipsometry, spectroscopy, interferometry spectroscopy of guided modes in optical wave guide structures and surface plasmon resonance

The potential of surface plasmon resonance for characterization of thin films and monitoring process at metal interfaces was recognized in the late seventies. In 1982 the use of SPR for gas detection and biosensing was demonstrated by Nylander and lieberg . Since then SPR sensing has been receiving continuously growing attention from scientific community. Development of new SPR sensing configurations as well as applications of SPR sensing devices for the measurement of physical , chemical and biological quantities have been described . The SPR sensor technology has been commercialized by several companies and become a leading technology in the field of direct real time observation of the biomolecular interaction.
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The phenomenon of anomalous diffraction on diffraction gratings due to the excitation of surface plasma waves was first described in the beginning of the twentieth century by Wood. In the late sixties, optical excitation of surface plasmons by the method of attenuated total reflection was demonstrated by Kretschmann and Otto

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ABSTRACT

A laser-based contact less displacement measurement system is used for data acquisition to analyze the mechanical vibrations exhibited by vibrating structures and machines. The analysis of these vibrations requires a number of signal processing operations which include the determination of the system conditions through a classification of various observed vibration signatures and the detection of changes in the vibration signature in order to identify possible trends. This information is also combined with the physical characteristics and contextual data (operating mode, etc.) of the system under surveillance to allow the evaluation of certain characteristics like fatigue, abnormal stress, life span, etc., resulting in a high level classification of mechanical behaviors and structural faults according to the type of application.

Smart sensors or latest generation sensors are now use for vibration measurements. Where the first generation sensors are piezoelectric accelerometers, second generation sensors are modification of piezoelectric accelerometers and latest are the smart sensors. Third-generation smart sensors use mixed mode analogue and digital operations to perform simple unidirectional communication with the condition monitoring equipment.

INTRODUCTION

The study of vibrations generated by mechanical structures and electrical machines are very important. The advent of machines and processes that are more and more complex and the ever increasing exploitation and production costs have favored the emergence of several application fields requiring vibration analysis. Among these application fields, we find machine monitoring, modal analysis, quality control, and environment tests. These functions are used in fields such as aeronautics, space industry, automotive industry, energy production, civil engineering, and audio equipment

The signal processing application described here uses a laser-based vibrometer in order to analyze the vibrations exhibited by mechanical systems. This technique can be used in the numerous applications mentioned above. The problem is to develop an intelligent system that has the ability to determine the system conditions based on a classification of the possible vibration signatures, detect changes in the vibration signature, and analyze their trends.

The classification of the various possible vibration signatures requires a priori knowledge of the mechanical system under healthy conditions as well as for the various fault conditions; when possible a mathematical model of the system should be provided. The latter is often crucial for the good interpretation of the observations, since it predicts the dynamic behavior of the structure and thus the healthy vibration signature

The classification of the various possible vibration signatures requires a priori knowledge of the mechanical system under healthy conditions as well as for the various fault conditions; when possible a mathematical model of the system should be provided. The latter is often crucial for the good interpretation of the observations, since it predicts the dynamic behavior of the structure and thus the healthy vibration signature

Vibration spectra are in general “peaky” due to either the periodic nature of the system’s excitation or to the natural resonance properties of the mechanical system. Changes in a vibration signal can result from a variation of the amplitude, frequency, and/or phase of one or many of the components. Moreover, new peaks may add to the existing spectrum, or some peaks may fade out. Changes can also appear in the form of short transients or spikes in the time domain. At the extreme, if the vibrations become so strong that the structure actually starts to move, then the overall average level of vibration would change, that is, a DC component would appear.

All of the above changes may occur gradually, like fatigue stress slowly deteriorating the material’s properties, or they may occur suddenly, like the rupture of a mechanical part within a machine. They may also occur periodically or in a random fashion depending on the process generating the vibrations. For multiple state systems, changes must be interpreted carefully. For example, if the operating speed of a rotating machine is raised from A to B, the vibration analysis system should not declare the observed changes as being the result of a mechanical failure, but should adapt itself to this new mode of operation.

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INTRODUCTION

Car racing is one of the most technologically advanced sports in the world today. Race Cars are the most sophisticated vehicles that we see in common use. It features exotic, high-speed, open-wheel cars racing all around the world. The racing teams have to create cars that are flexible enough to run under all conditions. This level of diversity makes a season of F1 car racing incredibly exciting. The teams have to completely revise the aerodynamic package, the suspension settings, and lots of other parameters on their cars for each race, and the drivers have to be extremely agile to handle all of the different conditions they face. Their carbon fiber bodies, incredible engines, advanced aerodynamics and intelligent electronics make each car a high-speed research lab. A F1 Car runs at speeds up to 240 mph, the driver experiences G-forces and copes with incoming data so quickly that it makes Car driving one of the most demanding professions in the sporting world. F1 car is an amazing machine that pushes the physical limitations of automotive engineering. On the track, the driver shows off his professional skills by directing around an oval track at speeds  

Formula One Grand Prix racing is a glamorous sport where a fraction of a second can mean the difference between bursting open the bubbly and struggling to get sponsors for the next season’s competition. To gain those extra milliseconds, all the top racing teams have turned to increasingly sophisticated network technology.
Much more money is spent in F1 these days. This results highest tech cars. The teams are huge and they often fabricate their entire racers. F1’s audience has grown tremendously throughout the rest of the world. .
In an average street car equipped with air bags and seatbelts, occupants are protected during 35-mph crashes into a concrete barrier. But at 180 mph, both the car and the driver have more than 25 times more energy. All of this energy has to be absorbed in order to bring the car to a stop. This is an incredible challenge, but the cars usually handle it surprisingly well

F1 Car driving is a demanding sport that requires precision, incredibly fast reflexes and endurance from the driver. A driver’s heart rate typically averages 160 beats per minute throughout the entire race. During a 5-G turn, a driver’s arm — which normally weighs perhaps 20 pounds — weighs the equivalent of 100 pounds. One thing that the G forces require is constant training in the weight room. Drivers work especially on muscles in the neck, shoulders, arms and torso so that they have the strength to work against the Gs. Drivers also work a great deal on stamina, because they have to be able to perform throughout a three-hour race without rest. One thing that is known about F1 Car drivers is that they have extremely quick reflexes and reaction times compared to the norm. They also have extremely good levels of concentration and long attention spans. Training, both on and off the track, can further develop these skills.

THE CHASIS Modern f1 Cars are defined by their chassis. All f1 Cars share the following characteristics:
They are single-seat cars.
They have an open cockpit.
They have open wheels — there are no fenders covering the wheels.
They have wings at the front and rear of the car to provide downforce.
They position the engine behind the driver..
The tub must be able to withstand the huge forces produced by the high cornering speeds, bumps and aerodynamic loads imposed on the car. This chassis model is covered in carbon fibre to create a mould from which the actual chassis can be made. Once produced the mould is smoothed down and covered in release agent so the carbon-fibre tub can be easily removed after manufacture.
The mould is then carefully filled inside with layers of carbon fibre. This material is supplied like a typical cloth but can be heated and hardened. The way the fibre is layered is important as the fibre can direct stresses and forces to other parts of the chassis, so the orientation of the fibres is crucial. The fibre is worked to fit exactly into the chassis mould, and a hair drier is often used to heat up the material, making it stick, and to help bend it to the contours of the mould. After each layer is fitted, the mould is put into a vacuum machine to literally suck the layers to the mould to make sure the fibre exactly fits the mould. The number of layers in the tub differs from area to area, but more stressed parts of the car have more, but the average number is about 12 layers. About half way between these layers there is a layer of aluminum honeycomb that further adds to the strength.
Once the correct numbers of layers have been applied to the mould, it is put into a machine called an autoclave where it is heated and pressurized. The high temperatures release the resin within the fibre and the high pressure (up to 100 psi) squeezes the layer together. Throughout this process, the fibres harden and become solid and the chassis is normally ready in two and a half hours. The internals such as pedals, dashboard and seat back are glued in place with epoxy resin and the chassis painted to the sponsor’s requirements.

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ABSTRACT

Gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine technology has received considerable attention over the last few years as a way to significantly improve fuel efficiency without making a major shift away from conventional internal combustion technology. In many respects, GDI technology represents a further step in the natural evolution of gasoline engine fueling systems. Each step of this evolution, from mechanically based carburetion, to throttle body fuel injection, through multi-point and finally sequential multi-point fuel injection, has taken advantage of improvements in fuel injector and electronic control technology to achieve incremental gains in the control of internal combustion engines. Further advancements in these technologies, as well as continuing evolutionary advancements in combustion chamber and intake valve design and combustion chamber flow dynamics, have permitted the production of GDI engines for automotive applications. Mitsubishi, Toyota and Nissan all market four- stroke GDI engines in Japan.

Major Objectives of the GDI engine

• Ultra-low fuel consumption that betters that of even diesel engines
• Superior power to conventional MPI engines

Sophisticated high-pressure injectors capable of producing very fine, well-defined fuel sprays, coupled with advanced charge air control techniques, now make stable GDI combustion feasible. There are impediments to widespread GDI introduction, however, especially in compliance with stringent emission standards. This report addresses both the efficiencies inherent in GDI technology and the emissions constraints that must be addressed before GDI can displace current spark-ignition engine technology.

In this seminar I am intending to familiarize the working of this technology, which has the capability to become the turning point in the development of diesel engine technology  

WHY NOT CARBURETTOR?

All Internal combustion engines burn fuel in air and every fuel has ideal air ratio at which it will ignite or burn as completely as possible. The challenge that faces engineers is to introduce the perfect or precise proportions of fuel and air required for complete combustion. This is commonly referred to as the stoichiometric ratio. Petrol has a stoichiometric ratio of 14.7:1(14.7 parts of air with 1 part of fuel by weight). This ratio has to be maintained under the varying engine loads and conditions. The carb earlier did this metering with its ancillaries. But the carb has its limits and though performance and economy with modern carbs were acceptable, a seamless power delivery and emissions often suffered.

Carburetor has following disadvantages
• Vapour lock
• Perfect air/fuel mixture cannot be obtained
• Lack of throttle response
• Low volumetric efficiency
• Icing – problem in aircraft engines
• Mechanical device
• Compromises on emission

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ABSTRACT

By-wire-steered system is integration of electronic devices and mechanical systems in order to improve the performance of the steering system.
Recent advances in dependable embedded system technology, as well as continuing demand for improved handling and passive and active safety improvements, have led vehicle manufacturers and suppliers to actively pursue development programs in computer-controlled, by-wire subsystems. These subsystems include steer and brake-by-wire, and are composed of mechanically decoupled sets of actuators and controllers connected through multiplexed, in-vehicle computer networks.

A steer-by-wire system replaces the traditional mechanical linkage between the steering wheel and the road wheel actuator (e.g., a rack and pinion steering system) with an electronic connection. This allows flexibility in the packaging and modularity of the design. Since it removes the direct Kinematic relationship between the steering and road wheels, it enables control algorithms to help enhance driver input.There is no mechanical link to the driver. Steer- and brake-by-wire provide a number of packaging and assembly advantages over conventional subsystems. For instance, electromechanical brake-by-wire subsystems require no hydraulic fluid to store or load at the assembly plant and permit more modular assembly, thus reducing the number of parts to be handled during production. Steer-by-wire systems have no steering column and may also eliminate cross-car steering assemblies such as racks. Arguments for ‘by-Wire’ systems include production costs, packaging and traffic safety . The ‘by-Wire’ technology as in drive, brake and steer is gaining ground and is undoubtedly an automotive solution of the future.

The arguments to support such ‘by-Wire’ systems include reduced production costs and packaging advantages and improved traffic safety. Emerging drive-by- wire technologies offer new possibilities for designing the steering characteristics of road vehicles. When the mechanical link between the steering wheel and the front wheels is replaced by sensors, controllers and actuators, enormous flexibility is achieved in terms of the control device applied and in terms of the transfer function of the steering system. This offers new possibilities for optimizing the steering system for mass-produced vehicles. However, the flexibility is of even greater advantage in the area of car adjustment for drivers with physical disabilities.

The transition to purely electrical steering systems will take place step by step via systems with mechanical or hydraulic backup. Development and production of the next generations of electrical steering systems up to purely electrical steering systems create high safety demands on components and systems. Reliable and safe electrical steering systems can be realized by using appropriate safety techniques for these new systems and their components combined with the know-how of safety relevant vehicle systems.

The main limitations of by-wire-steered system are the requirement of a 42 Volts car supply, high output alternator and new generation batteries.The steer-by-wire principle becomes absolutely necessary when Future innovative steering functions, such as vehicle dynamic interventions, collision avoidance, individual wheel steering, tracking assistance, automatic lateral guidance, and finally autonomous driving functions have to be implemented in a system compound of various vehicle systems.

INTRODUCTION

By-wire-steered system is an application of ‘MECHATRONICS’, which is the integration of electronic devices and mechanical systems in order to improve the performance of the system .

Recent advances in dependable embedded system technology, as well as continuing demand for improved handling and passive and active safety improvements, have led vehicle manufacturers and suppliers to actively pursue development programs in computer-controlled, by-wire subsystems. These subsystems include steer and brake-by-wire, and are composed of mechanically decoupled sets of actuators and controllers connected through multiplexed, in-vehicle computer networks. There is no mechanical link to the driver. Steer- and brake-by-wire provide a number of packaging and assembly advantages over conventional subsystems. For instance, electromechanical brake-by-wire subsystems require no hydraulic fluid to store or load at the assembly plant and permit more modular assembly, thus reducing the number of parts to be handled during production. Steer-by-wire systems have no steering column and may also eliminate cross-car steering assemblies such as racks. Arguments for ‘by-Wire’ systems include production costs, packaging and traffic safety

The ‘by-Wire’ technology as in drive, brake and steer is gaining ground and is undoubtedly an automotive solution of the future. The arguments to support such ‘by-Wire’ systems include reduced production costs and packaging advantages and improved traffic safety (a boon for everybody involved). Emerging drive-by- wire technologies offer new possibilities for designing the steering characteristics of road vehicles. When the mechanical link between the steering wheel and the front wheels is replaced by sensors, controllers and actuators, enormous flexibility is achieved in terms of the control device applied and in terms of the transfer function of the steering system. This offers new possibilities for optimizing the steering system for mass-produced vehicles. However, the flexibility is of even greater advantage in the area of car adjustment for drivers with physical disabilities.

A steer-by-wire system replaces the traditional mechanical linkage between the steering wheel and the road wheel actuator (e.g., a rack and pinion steering system) with an electronic connection. This allows flexibility in the packaging and modularity of the design. Since it removes the direct
Kinematic relationship between the steering and road wheels, it enables control algorithms to help enhance driver input.
The transition to purely electrical steering systems will take place step by step via systems with mechanical or hydraulic backup. Development and production of the next generations of electrical steering systems up to purely electrical steering systems create high safety demands on components and systems. Reliable and safe electrical steering systems can be realized by using appropriate safety techniques for these new systems and their components combined with the know-how of safety relevant vehicle systems.

‘Steer-by-Wire’ (SbW) there exists a legislation obstacle as European regulations require a mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the wheels. The column electric power steering (C-EPS) in the Opel Astra is therefore only an electric hybridization at steering level: the steering torque levels will increase when the car picks up speed. The “Dual drive” system in the Fiat Punto has an EPS with dual settings: the driver can activate the “city” mode and obtain gentler steering when parking. The main limitations of by-wire-steered system are the requirement of a 42 Volts car supply, high output alternator and new generation batteries.
The steer-by-wire principle becomes absolutely necessary when Future innovative steering functions, such as vehicle dynamic interventions, collision avoidance, individual wheel steering, tracking assistance, automatic lateral guidance, and finally autonomous driving functions have to be implemented in a system compound of various vehicle systems.

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Download Full Article pro-logic-ii.DOC

ABSTRACT

Pro Logic II, the next generation of Dolby Surround Pro Logic decoding technology. Pro Logic II brings exciting new features and advanced performance for decoding the many thousands of existing Dolby Surround programs, making them sound more like a discrete Dolby Digital 5.1-channel version than ever before.

The world is rapidly transitioning to digital delivery formats like DVD, and digital television (DTV), satellite and cable, all of which offer Dolby Digital 5.1 audio capability. The music industry is on the verge of transitioning from stereo to 5.1-channel sound with the new DVD-Audio format. Consumers enthusiastically demand 5.1-channel sound in new programs of all kinds. But vast numbers of programs already exist in stereo and Dolby Surround, and many more will continue to arrive in years to come. Pro Logic ­II lets consumers enjoy these programs with a convincing io5.1-likelc presentation.

Pro Logic II is able to decode the thousands of existing Dolby Surround movies and TV shows already on the shelf, compatibly, and with enhanced image stability. The improvements in decoding techniques mean that the discreteness of the sound field elements are better-preserved in the decoding process than was possible with the now universally standard Pro Logic technology, developed in the mid 80s.

“The technology in Pro Logic II is the first fundamentally new approach in matrix decoder design since the basic design which is still at the core of every other active matrix surround decoder” said Roger Dressler, Director of Technology Strategy for Dolby Laboratories. “Pro Logic II was designed from the outset to convert conventional stereo music recordings, which will be with us for some time to come, to a natural, believable surround experience. The result is a decoder that can handle a wide range of movie and music program material with equal skill. Dolby is proud to be handling the licensing and technical support of this exciting new technology”

This new system was invented by Jim Fosgate, one of the most prolific developers of surround decoding technologies since the quadraphonic era of the late 1960s. Mr. Fosgate said,” I have spent the past 25 years figuring out how to expose the hidden information in standard two-channel stereo recordings, both new and old. This breakthrough in matrix decoding technology allows users to enjoy all their existing two-channel programs, whether Dolby Surround encoded or not, with an enhanced level of spatiality and directionality.”

Pro Logic II also incorporates special features for controlling the overall spatial dimensionality and frontal sound field imaging that are particularly suited for auto sound applications. A standard four-channel Pro Logic decoding mode is also included in the technology package.

Dolby Surround Pro Logic II decoding can be implemented economically in either analog or digital circuitry, making it ideal for use in all traditional home theater products and in a range of new “music surround” products…………..

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ABSTRACT

Air muscle is essentially a robotic actuator which is replacing the conventional pneumatic cylinders at a rapid pace. Due to their low production costs and very high power to weight ratio, as high as 400:1, the preference for Air Muscles is increasing. Air Muscles find huge applications in biorobotics and development of fully functional prosthetic limbs, having superior controlling as well as functional capabilities compared with the current models. This paper discusses Air Muscles in general, their construction, and principle of operation, operational characteristics and applications.

INTRODUCTION

Robotic actuators conventionally are pneumatic or hydraulic devices. They have many inherent disadvantages like low operational flexibility, high safety requirements, and high cost operational as well as constructional etc. The search for an actuator which would satisfy all these requirements ended in Air Muscles. They are easy to manufacture, low cost and can be integrated with human operations without any large scale safety requirements. Further more they offer extremely high power to weight ratio of about 400:1. As a comparison electric motors only offer a power ration of 16:1. Air Muscles are also called McKibben actuators named after the researcher who developed it.

History

It was in 1958 that R.H.Gaylord invented a pneumatic actuator which’s original applications included a door opening arrangement and an industrial hoist. Later in 1959 Joseph.L.McKibben developed Air Muscles. The source of inspiration was the human muscle itself, which would swell when a force has to be applied. They were developed for use as an orthotic appliance for polio patients. Clinical trials were realized in 1960s. These muscles were actually made from pure rubber latex, covered by a double helical weave (braid) which would contract when expanded radially. This could actually be considered as a biorobotic actuator as it operates almost similar to a biological muscle.

Air Muscle Schematic- McKibben Model

The current form air muscles were developed by the Bridgestone Company, famous for its tires. The primary material was rubber i.e. the inner tube was made from rubber. Hence these actuators were called ‘Rubbertuators’. These developments took place around 1980s.
Later in 1990s Shadow Robotic Company of the United Kingdom began developing Air Muscles. These are the most commonly used air muscles now and are associated with almost all humanoid robotic applications which were developed recently. Apart from Shadow another company called The Merlin Humaniform develops air muscles for the same applications, although their design is somewhat different from the Shadow muscles.

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ABSTRACT

Brake performance can be divided into two distinct classes:
1) Base brake performance
2) Controlled brake performance.
A base brake event can be described as a normal or typical stop in which the driver maintains the vehicle in its intended direction at a controlled deceleration level that does not closely approach wheel lock. All other braking events where additional intervention may be necessary, such as wheel brake pressure control to prevent lock-up, application of a wheel brake to transfer torque across an open differential, or application of an induced torque to one or two selected wheels to correct an under- or over steering condition, may be classified as controlled brake performance. Statistics from the field indicate the majority of braking events stem from base brake applications and as such can be classified as the single most important function. From this perspective, it can be of interest to compare modern-day Electro-Hydraulic Brake (EHB) hydraulic systems with a conventional vacuum-boosted brake apply system and note the various design options used to achieve performance and reliability objectives.

INTRODUCTION

What is an EHB System?

The next brake concept. This system is a system which senses the driver’s will of braking through the pedal simulator and controls the braking pressures to each wheels. The system is also a hydraulic Brake by Wire system

Many of the vehicle sub-systems in today’s modern vehicles are being converted into “by-wire” type systems. This normally implies a function, which in the past was activated directly through a purely mechanical device, is now implemented through electro-mechanical means by way of signal transfer to and from an Electronic Control Unit. Optionally, the ECU may apply additional “intelligence” based upon input from other sensors outside of the driver’s influence. Electro-Hydraulic Brake is not a true “by-wire” system with the thought process that the physical wires do not extend all the way to the wheel brakes. However, in the true sense of the definition, any EHB vehicle may be braked with an electrical “joystick” completely independent of the traditional brake pedal. It just so happens that hydraulic fluid is used to transmit energy from the actuator to the wheel brakes. This configuration offers the distinct advantage that the current production wheel brakes may be maintained while an integral, manually applied, hydraulic failsafe backup system may be directly incorporated in the EHB system. The cost and complexity of this approach typically compares favorably to an Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) system, which requires significant investment in vehicle electrical failsafe architecture, with some needing a 42 volt power source. Therefore, EHB may be classified a “stepping stone” technology to full Electro-Mechanical Brakes.

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ABSTRACT

In this era of increasing fuel prices, here a device called ‘FUEL ENERGIZER’ help us to Reduce Petrol /Diesel /Cooking gas consumption up to 28%, or in other words this would equal to buying the fuel up to 28% cheaper prices.

When fuel flow through powerful magnetic field created by Magnetizer Fuel Energizer, The hydrocarbons change their orientation and molecules in them change their configuration. Result: Molecules get realigned, and actively into locked with oxygen during combustion to produce a near complete burning of fuel in combustion chamber.

INTRODUCTION

Today’s hydrocarbon fuels leave a natural deposit of carbon residue that clogs carburetor, fuel injector, leading to reduced efficiency and wasted fuel. Pinging , stalling , loss of horsepower and greatly decreased mileage on cars are very noticeable. The same is true of home heating units where improper combustion wasted fuel (gas) and cost, money in poor efficiency and repairs due to build-up.

Most fuels for internal combustion engine are liquid, fuels do not combust until they are vaporized and mixed with air. Most emission motor vehicle consists of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen. Unburned hydrocarbon and oxides of nitrogen react in the atmosphere and create smog. Smog is prime cause of eye and throat irritation, noxious smell, plat damage and decreased visibility. Oxides of nitrogen are also toxic.

Generally fuels for internal combustion engine is compound of molecules. Each molecule consists of a number of atoms made up of number of nucleus and electrons, which orbit their nucleus. Magnetic movements already exist in their molecules and they therefore already have positive and negative electrical charges. However these molecules have not been realigned, the fuel is not actively inter locked with oxygen during combustion, the fuel molecule or hydrocarbon chains must be ionized and realigned. The ionization and realignment is achieved through the application of magnetic field created by ‘Fuel Energizer’.

Fuel mainly consists of hydrocarbon and when fuel flows through a magnetic field, such as the one created by the fuel energizer , the hydro carbon change their orientation and molecules of hydrocarbon change their configuration. At the same time inter molecular force is considerably reduced or depressed. These mechanisms are believed to help disperse oil particles and to become finely divided. This has the effect of ensuring that fuel actively interlocks with oxygen producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber . The result is higher engine out put , better fuel economy and reduction in hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen that are emitted though exhaust. The ionization fuel also helps to dissolve the carbon build-up in carburetor , jets , fuel injector and combustion chamber, there by keeping the engines clear condition . Also it works on any vehicle or device (cooking gas stove) using liquid or gas fuel…..

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ABSTRACT

Sound, one of the five senses, plays an important role in entertainment especially in the movie industry. With the advances made in special effects and the film projection techniques, the need for better sound technologies was felt. the necessitated the development of the surround sound system capable of giving a feeling of “Being there”. The advent of digital signal processing added momentum to efforts in this direction, resulting in the evolution of digital surround sound systems. In this seminar I cover the history of surround sound, existing technologies, and present digital surround sound technology. Finally a comparison is provided as well as a look into the future.

 

INTRODUCTION

 Going to the movies today is a very different experience from going to the movies 70 years ago — the picture is clearer, most of the movies are in color, and the admission price is a lot higher. But the biggest change is probably the sound experience. In movie theaters of the 1930s, the entire soundtrack was played on a single speaker or collection of speakers positioned behind the movie screen. Today , theater audiences expect to hear sound coming from every direction. We’ll take a look at the surround-sound systems that have become standard movie theater equipment. We’ll also look at home theater surround-sound setups and get you started building your own.

 
WHAT IS SURROUND SOUND?

 There are many ways to make and present a sound recording. The simplest method, and the one used in the earliest sound movies, is called monaural or simply mono. Mono means that all the sound is recorded onto one audio track or channel (a single spiraled groove in a record, for example, or a single magnetic track on tape), which is typically played on one speaker. Two-channel recordings, in which sound is played on speakers on either side of the listener, are often referred to as stereo. This isn’t entirely accurate, as stereo (or stereophonic) actual refers to a wider range of multi-channel recordings. Two-channel sound is the standard format for home stereo receivers, television and FM radio broadcasts. The simplest two-channel recordings, known as binaural recordings, are produced with two microphones at a live event (a concert for example) to take the place of a human’s two ears When you listen to these two channels on separate speakers, it recreates the experience of being present at the event. Surround recordings take this idea a step further, adding more audio channels so sound comes from three or more directions. While the term “surround sound” technically refers to specific multi-channel systems designed by Dolby Laboratories, it is more commonly used as a generic term for theater and home theater multi-channel sound systems. In this article, we’ll use it in this generic sense. There are special microphones that will record surround sound (by picking up sound in three or more directions), but this is not the standard way to produce a surround soundtrack. Almost all movie surround soundtracks are created in a mixing studio. Sound editors and mixers take a number of different audio recordings — dialogue recorded on the movie set, sound effects recorded in a dubbing studio or created on a computer, a musical score — and decide which audio channel or channels to put them on. In the next section, we’ll learn a little bit about how surround sound was created and see how it was configured in older theaters……..

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